Journal Article > ResearchFull Text
Int J STD AIDS. 2003 March 1; Volume 14 (Issue 3); DOI:10.1258/095646203762869197
Zachariah R, Spielmann M P, Harries AD, Nkhoma W, Chantulo A, et al.
Int J STD AIDS. 2003 March 1; Volume 14 (Issue 3); DOI:10.1258/095646203762869197
In Thyolo District, Malawi, a study was conducted among commercial sex workers (CSWs) attending mobile clinics in order to; determine the prevalence and pattern of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), describe sexual behaviour among those who have an STI and identify risk factors associated with 'no condom use'. There were 1817 CSWs, of whom 448 (25%) had an STI. Of these, the commonest infections included 237 (53%) cases of abnormal vaginal discharge, 109 (24%) cases of pelvic inflammatory disease and 95 (21%) cases of genital ulcer disease (GUD). Eighty-seven per cent had sex while symptomatic, 17% without condoms. Having unprotected sex was associated with being married, being involved with commercial sex outside a known rest-house or bar, having a GUD, having fewer than two clients/day, alcohol intake and having had no prior medication for STI. The high levels of STIs, particularly GUDs, and unprotected sex underlines the importance of developing targeted interventions for CSWs and their clients.
Journal Article > ResearchFull Text
Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008 January 25
Zachariah R, Harries AD, Nkhoma W, Arendt V, Nchingula D, et al.
Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008 January 25
A study was carried out in 2000/2001 in a rural district of Malawi among men presenting with urethral discharge, in order to (a) describe their health-seeking and sexual behaviour, (b) determine the prevalence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis, and (c) verify the antibiotic susceptibility of N. gonorrhoeae. A total of 114 patients were entered into the study; 61% reported having taken some form of medication before coming to the sexually transmitted infections clinic. The most frequent alternative source of care was traditional healers. Sixty-eight (60%) patients reported sexual encounters during the symptomatic period, the majority (84%) not using condoms. Using ligase chain reaction on urine, N. gonorrhoeae was detected in 91 (80%) and C. trachomatis in 2 (2%) urine specimens. Forty five of 47 N. gonorrhoeae isolates produced penicillinase, 89% showing multi-antimicrobial resistance. This study emphasizes the need to integrate alternative care providers and particularly traditional healers in control activities, and to encourage their role in promoting safer sexual behaviour. In patients presenting with urethral discharge in our rural setting, C. trachomatis was not found to be a major pathogen. Antimicrobial susceptibility surveillance of N. gonorrhoeae is essential in order to prevent treatment failures and control the spread of resistant strains.
Journal Article > Meta-AnalysisFull Text
J Int AIDS Soc. 2011 July 6; Volume 14; DOI:10.1186/1758-2652-14-S1-S7
Zachariah R, Van Damme W, Arendt V, Schmit JC, Harries AD
J Int AIDS Soc. 2011 July 6; Volume 14; DOI:10.1186/1758-2652-14-S1-S7
Journal Article > ResearchFull Text
Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008 January 31
Zachariah R, Harries AD, Spielmann M P, Arendt V, Nchingula D, et al.
Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008 January 31
In Thyolo district, Malawi, an operational research study is being conducted on the efficacy and feasibility of co-trimoxazole prophylaxis in preventing deaths in HIV-positive patients with tuberculosis (TB). A series of cross-sectional studies were carried out in 1999 and 2001 to determine (i) whether faecal Escherichia coli resistance to co-trimoxazole in TB patients changed with time, and (ii) whether the resistance pattern was different in HIV-positive TB patients who were taking co-trimoxazole prophylaxis. Co-trimoxazole resistance among E. coli isolates in TB patients at the time of registration was 60% in 1999 and 77% in 2001 (P < 0.01). Resistance was 89% among HIV-infected TB patients (receiving cotrimoxazole), while in HIV-negative patients (receiving anti-TB therapy alone) it was 62% (P < 0.001). The study shows a significant increase of E. coli resistance to co-trimoxazole in TB patients which is particularly prominent in HIV-infected patients on co-trimoxazole prophylaxis. Since a high degree of plasmid-mediated transfer of resistance exists between E. coli and the Salmonella species, these findings could herald limitations on the short- and long-term benefits to be expected from the use of co-trimoxazole prophylaxis in preventing non-typhoid Salmonella bacteraemia and enteritis in HIV-infected TB patients in Malawi.
Journal Article > ResearchFull Text
Sex Transm Infect. 2002 April 1
Zachariah R, Nkhoma W, Harries AD, Arendt V, Chantulo A, et al.
Sex Transm Infect. 2002 April 1
OBJECTIVES: To describe health seeking and sexual behaviour including condom use among patients presenting with sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and, to identify sociodemographic and behavioural risk factors associated with "no condom use" during the symptomatic period. METHODS: A cross sectional study of consecutive new STI cases presenting at the district STI clinic in Thyolo, Malawi. They were interviewed by STI counsellors after obtaining informed consent. All patients were treated according to national guidelines. RESULTS: Out of 498 new STI clients, 53% had taken some form of medication before coming to the STI clinic, the most frequent alternative source being the traditional healer (37%). 46% of all clients reported sex during the symptomatic period (median 14 days), the majority (74%) not using condoms. 90% of all those who had not used condoms resided in villages and had seen only the traditional healer. Significant risk factors associated with "no condom use" included visiting a traditional healer, being female, having less than 8 years of school education, and being resident in villages. Genital ulcer disease (GUD) was the most common STI in males (49%) while in females this comprised 27% of STIs. CONCLUSIONS: These findings, and especially the extremely high GUD prevalence is of particular concern, considering the high national HIV prevalence in Malawi (9%) and the implications for STI and HIV transmission. There is an urgent need to integrate traditional healers in control activities, encourage their role in promoting safer sexual behaviour, and to reorient or even change existing strategies on condom promotion and STI control.
Journal Article > ResearchFull Text
AIDS. 2003 May 2; Volume 17 (Issue 7); 1053-1061.; DOI:10.1097/01.aids.0000060355.78202.b7
Zachariah R, Spielmann M P, Chinji C, Gomani P, Arendt V, et al.
AIDS. 2003 May 2; Volume 17 (Issue 7); 1053-1061.; DOI:10.1097/01.aids.0000060355.78202.b7
OBJECTIVES
To assess the feasibility and effectiveness of voluntary counselling, HIV testing and adjunctive cotrimoxazole in reducing mortality in a cohort of tuberculosis (TB) patients registered under routine programme conditions in a rural district of Malawi.
DESIGN
'Before' and 'after' cohort study using historical controls.
METHODS
Between 1 July 1999 and 30 June 2000 all TB patients were started on standardized anti-TB treatment, and offered voluntary counselling and HIV testing (VCT). Those found to be HIV-positive were offered cotrimoxazole at a dose of 480 mg twice daily, provided there were no contraindications. Side-effects were monitored clinically. End-of-treatment outcomes in this cohort (intervention group) were compared with a cohort registered between 1 July 1998 and 30 June 1999 in whom VCT and cotrimoxazole was not offered (control group).
FINDINGS
A total of 1986 patients was registered in the study: 1061 in the intervention group and 925 in the control cohort. In the intervention group, 1019 (96%) patients were counselled pre-test, 964 (91%) underwent HIV testing and 938 (88%) were counselled post-test. The overall HIV-seroprevalence rate was 77%. A total of 693 patients were given cotrimoxazole of whom 14 (2%) manifested minor dermatological reactions. The adjusted relative risk of death in the intervention group compared with the control group was 0.81 (P < 0.001). The number needed to treat with VCT and adjunctive cotrimoxazole to prevent one death during anti-TB treatment was 12.5.
INTERPRETATION
This study shows that VCT and adjunctive cotrimoxazole is feasible, safe and reduces mortality rates in TB patients under routine programme conditions.
To assess the feasibility and effectiveness of voluntary counselling, HIV testing and adjunctive cotrimoxazole in reducing mortality in a cohort of tuberculosis (TB) patients registered under routine programme conditions in a rural district of Malawi.
DESIGN
'Before' and 'after' cohort study using historical controls.
METHODS
Between 1 July 1999 and 30 June 2000 all TB patients were started on standardized anti-TB treatment, and offered voluntary counselling and HIV testing (VCT). Those found to be HIV-positive were offered cotrimoxazole at a dose of 480 mg twice daily, provided there were no contraindications. Side-effects were monitored clinically. End-of-treatment outcomes in this cohort (intervention group) were compared with a cohort registered between 1 July 1998 and 30 June 1999 in whom VCT and cotrimoxazole was not offered (control group).
FINDINGS
A total of 1986 patients was registered in the study: 1061 in the intervention group and 925 in the control cohort. In the intervention group, 1019 (96%) patients were counselled pre-test, 964 (91%) underwent HIV testing and 938 (88%) were counselled post-test. The overall HIV-seroprevalence rate was 77%. A total of 693 patients were given cotrimoxazole of whom 14 (2%) manifested minor dermatological reactions. The adjusted relative risk of death in the intervention group compared with the control group was 0.81 (P < 0.001). The number needed to treat with VCT and adjunctive cotrimoxazole to prevent one death during anti-TB treatment was 12.5.
INTERPRETATION
This study shows that VCT and adjunctive cotrimoxazole is feasible, safe and reduces mortality rates in TB patients under routine programme conditions.
Journal Article > ResearchFull Text
Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2001 September 1
Zachariah R, Harries AD, Arendt V, Wennig R, Schneider S, et al.
Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2001 September 1
OBJECTIVE: To verify compliance with cotrimoxazole prophylaxis in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected tuberculosis (TB) patients during the continuation phase of anti-tuberculosis treatment, and to assess the sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive values of verbal verification and pill counts as methods of checking compliance. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. METHODS: Cotrimoxazole compliance was assessed in a cohort of TB patients who were attending four TB follow-up centres during the continuation phase of anti-TB treatment between months 4 and 6. Verbal verification of drug intake, physical verification of pill count balance, and urine trimethoprim detection by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry were used for assessing compliance. RESULTS: Using urine trimethoprim detection as the gold standard for compliance, trimethoprim was detected in 82 (94%) of 87 patients in the cohort. Verbal verification of cotrimoxazole intake and objective pill count balances showed high sensitivity and positive predictive values compared with the gold standard of urine trimethoprim detection. CONCLUSIONS: In a rural district in Malawi, compliance with cotrimoxazole as an adjunct to anti-tuberculosis treatment in HIV-infected TB patients was good, and can be assessed simply and practically by verbal verification and pill counts.
Journal Article > ResearchFull Text
East Afr Med J. 2002 February 1
Zachariah R, Harries AD, Nkhoma W, Arendt V, Spielmann M P, et al.
East Afr Med J. 2002 February 1
OBJECTIVES: To estimate HIV prevalence in various blood donor populations, to identity sociodemographic risk factors associated with prevalent HIV and to assess the feasibility of offering routine voluntary counselling services to blood donors. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Thyolo district, Malawi. METHODS: Data analysis involving blood donors who underwent voluntary counselling and HIV testing between January 1998 and July 2000. RESULTS: Crude HIV prevalence was 22%, while the age standardised prevalence (>15 years) was 17%. Prevalence was lowest among rural donors, students and in males of the age group 15-19 years. There was a highly significant positive association of HIV prevalence with increasing urbanisation. Significant risk factors associated with prevalence for both male and female donors included having a business-related occupation, living in a semi-urban or urban area and being in the age group 25-29 years for females and 30-34 years for males. All blood donors were pre-test counselled and 90% were post test counselled in 2000. CONCLUSIONS: HIV prevalence in blood donors was alarmingly high, raising important concerns on the potential dangers of HIV transmission through blood transfusions. Limiting blood transfusions, use of a highly sensitive screening test, and pre-donation selection of donors is important. The experience also shows that it is feasible to offer pre and post test counselling services for blood donors as an entry point for early diagnosis of asymptomatic HIV infection and, broader preventive strategies including the potential of early access to drugs, for the prevention of opportunistic infections.
Journal Article > CommentaryAbstract
Lancet Infect Dis. 2010 January 1; Volume 10 (Issue 1); DOI:10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70321-4
Harries AD, Zachariah R, van Oosterhout JJ, Reid SE, Hosseinipour MC, et al.
Lancet Infect Dis. 2010 January 1; Volume 10 (Issue 1); DOI:10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70321-4
Despite the enormous progress made in scaling up antiretroviral therapy (ART) in sub-Saharan Africa, many challenges remain, not least of which are the identification and management of patients who have failed first-line therapy. Less than 3% of patients are receiving second-line treatment at present, whereas 15-25% of patients have detectable viral loads 12 months or more into treatment, of whom a substantial proportion might have virological failure. We discuss the reasons why virological ART failure is likely to be under-diagnosed in the routine health system, and address the current difficulties with standard recommended second-line ART regimens. The development of new diagnostic tools for ART failure, in particular a point-of-care HIV viral-load test, combined with simple and inexpensive second-line therapy, such as boosted protease-inhibitor monotherapy, could revolutionise the management of ART failure in resource-limited settings.
Journal Article > ResearchFull Text
Trop Doct. 2007 January 1; Volume 37 (Issue 1); DOI:10.1258/004947507779951899
Arendt V, Mossong J, Zachariah R, Inwani C, Farah B, et al.
Trop Doct. 2007 January 1; Volume 37 (Issue 1); DOI:10.1258/004947507779951899
A study was conducted among patients attending a public health centre in Nairobi, Kenya in order to (a) verify the prevalence of HIV, (b) identify clinical risk factors associated with HIV and (c) determine clinical markers for clinical screening of HIV infection at the health centre level. Of 304 individuals involved in the study,107(35%) were HIV positive. A clinical screening algorithm based on four clinical markers, namely oral thrush, past or present TB, past or present herpes zoster and prurigo would pick out 61 (57%) of the 107 HIV-positive individuals. In a resource-poor setting, introducing a clinical screening algorithm for HIV at the health centre level could provide an opportunity for targeting voluntary counselling and HIV testing, and early access to a range of prevention and care interventions.